Ch'ing

In China in the Ch'ing dynasty local government was organized on the same principle at all levels. All administrative units, from the province down to the chou (department) and the hsien (district), which are the focus of our study, were designed and created by the central government which financed their budgets, appointed their officials, and directed and supervised their activities. All local officials, including magistrates of the chou and hsien, were agents of the central government. There was no autonomy in the chou, the hsien, or in the towns and villages that constituted them. In fact, no formal government of any sort existed below the chou and hsien levels.